3.6 Timing ServicesThe kernel provides several different timing services to processes. These services include timers that run in real time and timers that run only while a process is executing.   Real TimeThe system’s time offset since January 1, 1970, Universal Coordinated Time (UTC), also known as the Epoch, is returned by the system call gettimeofday. (협정 세계시) Most modern processors (includin..

3.5 Memory-Management ServicesThe memory organization and layout associated with a FreeBSD process is shown in Figure 3.3. Each process begins execution with three memory segments: text, data, and stack. The data segment is divided into initialized data and uninitialized data (also known as bss). The text is read-only and is normally shared by all processes executing the file, whereas the data a..

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3.4 Clock InterruptsThe system is driven by a clock that interrupts at regular intervals. Each interrupt is referred to as a tick. On the PC, the clock ticks 1000 times per second. At each tick, the system updates the current time of day as well as user-process and system timers.  Handling 1000 interrupts per second can be time consuming. To reduce the interrupt load, the kernel computes the num..

3.3 Traps and InterruptsTraps, like system calls, occur synchronously for a process. Traps normally occur because of unintentional errors, such as division by zero or indirection through an invalid pointer. The process becomes aware of the problem either by catching a signal or by being terminated. Traps can also occur because of a page fault, in which case the system makes the page available an..

3.2 System CallsThe most frequent trap into the kernel (after clock processing) is a request to do a system call. System performance requires that the kernel minimize the overhead in fielding and dispatching a system call. The system-call handler must do the following work:Verify that the parameters to the system call are located at a valid user address, and copy them from the user’s address spa..

Run-Time OrganizationThe kernel can be logically divided into a top half and a bottom halfThe top half of the kernel provides services to processes in response to system calls or traps. This software can be thought of as a library of routines shared by all processes. The top half of the kernel executes in a privileged execution mode, in which it has access both to kernel data structures and to t..

3.1 Kernel OrganizationThe FreeBSD kernel can be viewed as a service provider to user processes. Processes usually access these services through system calls. Some services, such as process scheduling and memory management, are implemented as processes that execute in kernel mode or as routines that execute periodically within the kernel.In this chapter, we describe how kernel services are provi..

Byte-Pair Encoding tokenizationhttps://youtu.be/HEikzVL-lZU어떻게 토큰화의 단위가 결정되는지 알 수 있다.   + Byte-Pair Encoding (BPE) was initially developed as an algorithm to compress texts, and then used by OpenAI for tokenization when pretraining the GPT model. It’s used by a lot of Transformer models, including GPT, GPT-2, RoBERTa, BART, and DeBERTa. 1) 캐릭터 별로 모두 분리하기 2) Pair 단위로 빈도 수 count 3) 가장 많은 빈도를 보여주는 ..

Tokenization and Embedding: Science Behind Large Language Model Every input that we are providing to GPT is nothing but a token (numerical id) or a sequence of tokens. GPT doesn’t understand the language the way humans do but it just processes sequence of numerical ids, that we call tokens. But how does it find the association among words(tokens) and provide human like response, here comes the c..